Beyond Suspensions: Examining School Discipline Policies and Connections to the School-to-Prison Pipeline for Students of Color with Disabilities (PDF)
This report examines compliance with federal laws designed to protect students of color with disabilities from discrimination, and whether the federal government’s enforcement of these laws adequately protects these students from discriminatory disciplinary actions and policies.
Citation/Source
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. 2019. Beyond Suspensions: Examining School Discipline Policies and Connections to the School-to-Prison Pipeline for Students of Color with Disabilities. Washington, DC: Author.
Publication Date 2024
Interventions Designed to Foster a Sense of Belonging, Identity Affirmation, and Growth Mindset Improve Long-Term Discipline Outcomes for Negatively Stereotyped Boys (Article)
The authors hypothesized that high rates of discipline citations for students of color are the product of a toxic socialrelational cycle between students and teachers. At the heart of this cycle are harmful stereotypes that allege that black and Latino boys are “troublemakers.” That stereotype can lead teachers to perceive and respond to students more harshly.
Citation/Source
Goyer, J. P., Cohen, G. L., Cook, J. E., Master, A., Apfel, N., Lee, W., Henderson, A.G., Reeves, S.L., Okonofua, J.A., Walton, G. M. (2019). Interventions Designed to Foster a Sense of Belonging, Identity Affirmation, and Growth Mindset Improve Long-Term Discipline Outcomes for Negatively Stereotyped Boys. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Publication Date 2024
A Vicious Cycle: A Social–Psychological Account of Extreme Racial Disparities in School Discipline (Article)
In this article, the authors propose that pervasive negative stereotypes about racially stigmatized children influence both teachers and students, undermining teacher–student relationships over time.
Citation/Source
Okonofua, J. A., Walton, G. M., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2016). A Vicious Cycle: A Social–Psychological Account of Extreme Racial Disparities in School Discipline. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(3) 381–398.
Publication Date 2024
Two Strikes: Race and the Disciplining of Young Students (Article)
There are large racial disparities in school discipline in the United States, which, for Black students, not only contribute to school failure but also can lay a path toward incarceration. Although the disparities have been well documented, the psychological mechanisms underlying them are unclear. The authors argue that race not only can influence how perceivers interpret a specific behavior, but also can enhance perceivers’ detection of behavioral patterns across time.
Citation/Source
Okonofua, J. A., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2015). Two Strikes: Race and the Disciplining of Young Students. Psychological Science, 26(5) 617–624.
Publication Date 2024
Targeted Identity-Safety Interventions Cause Lasting Reductions in Discipline Citations Among Negatively Stereotyped Boys (Article)
High rates of discipline citations predict adverse life outcomes, a harm disproportionately borne by Black and Latino boys. The authors hypothesized that these citations arise in part from negative cycles of interaction between students and teachers, which unfold in contexts of social stereotypes.
Citation/Source
Goyer, J. P., Cohen, G. L., Cook, J. E., Master, A., Apfel, N., Lee, W., Henderson, A. G., Reeves, S. L., Okonofua, J. A., & Walton, G. M. (2019). Targeted Identity-Safety Interventions Cause Lasting Reductions in Discipline Citations Among Negatively Stereotyped Boys. American Psychological Association, 117(2) 229-259.
Publication Date 2024
Unpacking the Drivers of Racial Disparities in School Suspension and Expulsion (Article)
School suspension and expulsion are important forms of punishment that disproportionately affect Black students, with long-term consequences for educational attainment and other indicators of wellbeing. Prior research identifies three mechanisms that help account for racial disparities in suspension and expulsion: between-school sorting, differences in student behaviors, and differences in the treatment and support of students with similar behaviors. The authors extend this literature by (1) comparing the contributions of these three mechanisms in a single study, (2) assessing behavior and school composition when children enter kindergarten and before most are exposed to school discipline, and (3) using both teacher and parent reports of student behaviors.
Citation/Source
J. Owens, S. S. McLanahan, Unpacking the Drivers of Racial Disparities in School Suspension and Expulsion. Soc. Forces 98, 1548–1577 (2020).
Publication Date 2024
A Scalable Empathic-Mindset Intervention Reduces Group Disparities in School Suspensions (Article)
What causes high rates of suspensions, especially for students of color? Growing evidence points to racial bias. For instance, laboratory experiments find that teachers are more likely to knit together a series of misbehaviors as a pattern, to view a student who misbehaves as a troublemaker, and to punish them more severely, if the student is Black as compared with White.
Citation/Source
Okonofua, J. A., Goyer, J. P., Lindsay, C. A., Haugabrook, J., & Walton, G. M. (2022). A Scalable Empathic-Mindset Intervention Reduces Group Disparities in School Suspensions. Sciences Advances, 8 (12), 1-10.
Publication Date 2024
Brief Intervention to Encourage Empathic Discipline Cuts Suspension Rates in Half among Adolescents (Article)
There is increasing concern about rising discipline citations in K–12 schools and a lack of means to reduce them. A brief intervention aimed at encouraging an empathic mindset about discipline halved student suspension rates over an academic year. The authors found this intervention, an online exercise, can be delivered at near-zero marginal cost to large samples of teachers and students.
Citation/Source
Okonofua, J. A., Panunesku, D., & Walton, G. M., (2016). Brief Intervention to Encourage Empathic Discipline Cuts Suspension Rates in Half among Adolescents. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113 (19) 5221-5226.
Publication Date 2024
The Effects of Student-Teacher Ethnoracial Matching on Exclusionary Discipline for Asian American, Black, and Latinx Students: Evidence From New York City (Article)
Greater proportions of ethnoracially matched teachers decreases the likelihood of suspension for Black, Latinx, and Asian American students. The magnitudes of these effects are small but suggest that diversifying the teacher workforce could lead to significant decreases in exclusionary discipline in urban districts.
Citation/Source
Shirrell, M., Bristol, T.J., & Britton, T.A. "The Effects of Student-Teacher Ethnoracial Matching on Exclusionary Discipline for Asian American, Black, and Latinx Students: Evidence From New York City." EdWorkingPaper, 21-475, (2021).
Publication Date 2024
Promoting Anti-Racism Practices and the Cycle of Critical Consciousness within Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports Frameworks (Article)
The authors posit that interpretation of behavior of marginalized students is susceptible to prejudice, bias, and racist ideology.The articles points out that although PBIS frameworks are increasingly used in schools to support students, students of color continue to be overrepresented as needing supports within these frameworks.
Citation/Source
Taylor, J. C., Hanley, W., Deger, G., & C. Hunter, W. (2022). Promoting Anti-Racism Practices and the Cycle of Critical Consciousness within Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports Frameworks. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/00400599221120242
Publication Date 2024
